Teaching in High Tech Environments: Classroom Management Revisited
Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow Research
Report Number 10
Teaching in High Tech Environments: Classroom Management Revisited, First
- Fourth Year Findings
Authors
Judith Haymore Sandholtz, Ph.D.
Cathy Ringstaff, Ph.D.
David C. Dwyer, Ph.D.
Apple Computer, Inc.
Apple Computer, Inc.
1 Infinite Loop
Cupertino, CA 95014
Introduction
Since 1985, the Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow (ACOT) SM research
project has provided teachers and students at five public school sites with
individual computers for use at school and at home. Consequently, these
teachers have spent more time teaching in high-tech classrooms than any
other teachers in the world.
Although most ACOT teachers taught for years before entering the project,
the introduction of computers into their classrooms significantly altered
their teaching environments. In many ways, they felt like novices again.
None anticipated the range of student misbehavior, changes in the physical
environment, shift in their teaching roles, and technical problems that
would accompany the new technology. Nor did they anticipate how quickly
they would learn to utilize the technology to their advantage in managing
the classroom in areas such as grading, individualizing instruction, developing
materials, and increasing motivation.
While preservice teacher education typically includes training in classroom
management techniques, little is known about classroom management in high-access-to-technology
environments. The existing research offers few suggestions to practitioners
entering classrooms filled with computers, networks, laserdiscs, printers,
and other technological tools. Instead, the reports make recommendations
related to computer laboratories or classrooms with one or two computers
(e.g., Amarel, 1983; Ragsdale, 1983; Hoffman, 1984).
Researchers studying teacher development have found that beginning teachers
progress through a series of stages: survival, mastery, and impact (Fuller,
1969; Hall & Loucks, 1979). When first entering the classroom, teachers
focus on themselves, concentrating on issues such as controlling student
behavior. As they gain self confidence, they become better able to anticipate
and solve problems, and gradually the focus shifts to their impact on students'
achievement and attitude. This three-stage model can also be used to understand
the development of experienced teachers who are implementing educational
innovations, and data from this study support the assumption that experienced
teachers entering high-access-to-technology classrooms also move through
these stages.
This report describes how teachers in the ACOT program progressed from frustration
to success in coping with changes brought about by the introduction of computers
into their classrooms.
The Study
Overview
Context
This qualitative study examines classroom management data from 32 elementary
and secondary ACOT teachers in five ACOT school sites located across the
country. These sites reflect the diverse populations and conditions found
in contemporary public schooling. Each site began with one classroom in
the fall of 1986, adding classrooms, staff, and students in subsequent years.
By the spring of 1989, the five sites included grades 1 6 and 9 12, located
in communities that ranged from low SES urban, to high SES suburban and
middle SES rural areas.
In each of these settings, students and teachers have constant access to
interactive technologies, including Apple II and Macintosh computers, printers,
scanners, laserdisc and videotape players, modems, CD-ROM drives, and hundreds
of software titles. Technology is used as a tool to support learning across
the curriculum and the classrooms serve as multimedia environments where
students and teachers use textbooks, manipulatives, crayons, overhead projectors,
televisions, pianos, etc., as well as computers. The operating principle
is to use the media that best supports the learning goal.
Focus and Conceptual Framework
The focus of this study is on the evolution of classroom management in ACOT's
high-tech classrooms. Analysis of data in this area suggests a three-stage
model of development that reflects teacher concerns about classroom management:
survival, mastery, and impact.
In the survival stage, teachers are preoccupied with their own adequacy.
Their concerns center on their ability to control the class and they spend
considerable time reacting to problems instead of anticipating and avoiding
them. In the mastery stage, they begin to anticipate problems and develop
strategies for solving them. Finally, in the impact stage, teachers focus
on the effects of their teaching on students' achievement and attitudes,
and begin to use the technology to their advantage.
Evidence of moving from stage to stage is not always clear cut, however,
as individuals may vacillate between phases. For instance, in this study,
by the second year, most teachers had learned to expect occasional technological
problems, such as disk failures or network bombs, and planned accordingly.
Yet, when new software, hardware, or students arrived on the scene, many
teachers temporarily reverted back to the survival stage.
Relationship Between Classroom Management and Instruction
This report examines classroom management rather than instruction. However,
these two aspects of a teacher's job are so related that it is important
to consider what occurs instructionally while teachers struggle with classroom
management issues.
Because the sheer number of computers in ACOT classrooms radically transformed
both the physical environment and classroom management, instruction remained
relatively unchanged in the early years of the project. Another study that
examined ACOT teachers' instructional development (Dwyer, Ringstaff, &
Sandholtz, 1990) identified five stages of evolutionary change: Entry, Adoption,
Adaptation, Appropriation, and Invention. The study revealed that teachers
first used technology to strengthen the traditional text-based curriculum
delivered in a lecture-recitation-seatwork mode. Later, as teachers became
more confident with technology, they invented more dynamic learning experiences
for the students. [For a more complete explanation of this research on instructional
development, see ACOT Reports # 8 and 9.]
In comparison to the slow pace of instructional change, dramatic shifts
in classroom management were required immediately to establish order in
these radically different teaching environments. As the diagram on page
7 illustrates, teachers moved through the classroom management stages of
survival, mastery, and impact more quickly than through the instructional
stages. Consistent with other research in classroom management, this study
showed that instructional innovation is not likely to occur until teachers
have achieved a significant level of mastery over management issues.
Data Collection and Analysis
This longitudinal study involves analysis of data collected during a
four-year period, from October 1985 through June 1989. Data sources include
weekly written reports sent via electronic mail, correspondence between
sites, and bi-monthly audiotape journals in which teachers reflect on their
classroom experiences.
The research team transcribed all written communications and summarized
the audiotapes. To facilitate analysis, the narratives were divided into
episodes with each episode representing an event with a beginning, middle,
and end. Episodes were indexed for retrieval using a variety of categories
and subcategories (e.g., participant, affective tone, context, general theme).
The complete database includes over 13,000 episodes. A relational database
is used to manage and analyze the data. This software allows data to be
organized in a multitude of ways (e.g., by teacher, by school site, by thematic
categories). For this report, data were organized longitudinally to examine
changes in teachers' classroom management concerns over time. The analysis
provides a view of the teachers' "collective consciousness," documenting
general trends related to classroom management concerns during the evolution
of the project.
The Findings
Stage One: Survival
There are so many [technical problems] like this that we deal with on a day to day basis that I didn't anticipate being part of this program. I'm anxious for the weekend so I don't have to do anything with computers.
An important concern of teachers in the survival stage was their inability
to anticipate problems. Data analysis revealed a number of common problems
that fell into four categories: student misbehavior and attitudes, physical
environment, technical problems, and classroom dynamics.
Student Misbehavior and Attitudes
The introduction of computers to classrooms opened up a whole new realm
of student misbehaviors. As students learned to use the technology, some
also discovered how to copy software illegally, protect their disks from
teacher access, and sabotage other students' work.
New methods for cheating also accompanied the new technology. Knowing that
the teacher could no longer rely on handwriting to distinguish an individual's
work, some students stole other people's disks or copied work from the disks
before returning them. Other students used more advanced techniques for
cheating, such as figuring out how to get 100% on a computerized test without
doing any of the work.
In many cases of student misbehavior, the actions stemmed from the children's
inquisitive nature. On one occasion, some students experimented with a magnet
to see "if it really does erase a disk." "It did," reported
the disgruntled teacher. While the teachers admired the students' curiosity,
they decried the results of the students' misguided adventures. One of the
most frustrating situations was when students caused problems with the computer
network system because it shut down all the computers in the classroom.
Teachers also found themselves unable, in the beginning, to deal with student
attitudes. Students became so enamored with the computers that they were
unwilling to work with paper and pencil. Several of the software programs
intrigued them to the point they resisted when teachers decided to move
on to other activities. In addition, the use of home computers provided
students a host of new excuses for not completing their homework. Hardware
problems on the home computer became the most typical excuse. One teacher,
after finally catching on to the scheme, started keeping a record of all
the excuses given by students.
Physical Environment
The addition of computers to the classroom also created a number
of problems related to the physical environment. For instance, the classroom
lighting and the glare from windows made it difficult to view images on
the computer and large screen monitors. Chalk dust fell into the equipment
and caused problems. Power outages created major disruptions and so did
extreme weather conditions. Hot weather caused computers to crash in schools
without air conditioning, and rainstorms flooded several classrooms, damaging
equipment and making it dangerous to turn on the computers.
Teachers also expressed frustration at having to spend extra time setting
up equipment. Besides the initial set-up, teachers dismantled computers
for repairs and rearranged them for special projects and various other reasons.
In addition, teachers who were accustomed to neat and orderly classrooms
became bothered by the clutter created by so much hardware and software.
Classrooms had become much more crowded, making it difficult to move around
and work with individuals, or to facilitate spontaneous group work.
Technical Problems
Most teachers do not have to worry about technical problems on a day-to-day
basis, but ACOT teachers constantly face technical problems because of the
amount of equipment they deal with routinely. And since their instruction
is computer-centered, technical problems upset both their daily and long-range
plans. During the four-year period of this study, the most frequent complaints
lodged by teachers related to technical problems.
Hardware problems ranged from equipment failing to arrive on time at the
beginning of the school year, to continual breakdowns throughout the year,
and slowdowns when printers backed up and networks jammed at the end of
a period. Without functioning equipment, the curriculum got bogged down
and students fell behind in their work.
Bringing computers into the classrooms meant that teachers had to deal with
software and all of its accompanying headaches. Perhaps the most frustrating
problems resulted from some incompatibility between the software and the
computers or printers. In addition, software often arrived late and without
enough classroom copies. At several sites, the local suppliers were unable
to keep enough disks in stock to meet the demands of the ACOT classrooms.
Some teachers became overwhelmed by the sheer number of disks and programs
they had to manage daily.
Classroom Dynamics
Another concern of the first stage centered on teachers' abilities to understand
the dynamics of the classroom environment. Many teachers initially were
troubled by the increase in noise level and the necessity for students to
move freely around the classroom. Having become accustomed to students sitting
in their seats and the teacher in front of the classroom, some teachers
worried whether the students were on task and learning.
In many cases, teachers found themselves faced with knowing less than their
students about hardware or software, upsetting their traditional views about
teacher role. While some felt threatened by that situation, others described
it as exciting and were inspired to increase their own knowledge.
Since computers facilitated independent learning, some teachers felt that
they were no longer teaching and suggested that the classrooms had become
"technology centered, not instruction centered." They wondered
if they were accomplishing their main goal of "teaching students the
content."
Stage Two: Mastery
We really feel we're off to a smooth start this year. We took a week of planning time before school began to get ready and that really helped. All the rooms are up and running. . . .
In this stage, teachers began not only to anticipate problems but also
to develop strategies for solving them. To deal with student misbehavior,
for instance, teachers designed consequences for those behaviors, such as
removing computer privileges. To deal with cheating, teachers adopted strategies
such as confronting offenders individually, holding class discussions on
ethics, and imposing grading penalties. Some teachers figured out how to
use the technology to catch the offenders and stifle recurrences. For example,
one teacher merged students' individual databases and resorted the data,
revealing that several students had copied incorrect data from one another.
In dealing with problems related to the physical environment, teachers arranged
the classrooms to allow for the greatest amount of free space and developed
systems for organizing software, printer paper, and other paraphernalia.
They also wrote proposals for glare-proof windows, static-free carpeting,
and dustless white boards.
To counteract the amount of time spent setting up and arranging equipment,
some teachers began to enlist student help, figuring it would help them
learn to set up their home computers as well. One site scheduled a full
week of planning time before school started to set up the classrooms.
Technical problems continued throughout the four years of this study. Given
the number of computers and the frequency of use, malfunctioning equipment
became a fact of life in the ACOT classrooms. Consequently, teachers developed
alternate lesson plans for times when the computers were down. They also
devised rules for printing and network use to avoid jamming the systems
at the end of the period. With experience, teachers became better able to
avoid problems or at least pinpoint the source of problems when they did
occur. One teacher, after completing computer repair training, was delighted
to discover that he could solve problems that puzzled even the district
technician.
Teachers worked hard to increase their own expertise with the technology.
They spent time in the summer learning new software, attended one another's
classes, and found numerous ways to share newly acquired skills. Their increased
knowledge in turn strengthened their instruction as well as their classroom
management. Teachers began to envision long-term instructional goals that
focused on successful problem solving and conceptual understanding rather
than specific content.
Increased teacher knowledge also had a noticeable impact on student engagement,
lessening discipline problems that had plagued teachers at the beginning.
By the second year of the project, reports of increased student engagement
and motivation were common. Teachers also began to accept the need for students
to move freely around the classroom and became less bothered by the noise
level.
Stage Three: Impact
It would be hard to live without a computer. . . . It has become a way of life.
In the impact stage, teachers used technology to their advantage in managing
the classroom. Rather than just troubleshooting, teachers developed techniques
for monitoring student work, keeping records, grading tests, developing
materials, and individualizing instruction. As they learned more about computers
and software, teachers discovered the technology could save time rather
than create additional demands.
One of the first areas where teachers learned to utilize technology to their
advantage was recordkeeping. By creating databases and spreadsheets on the
computer, they significantly decreased the amount of time they spent keeping
track of everything from teaching materials to grades. Some teachers used
commercial programs for calculating grades while others developed their
own. One site developed a form for preparing the Individual Education Plan
(IEP) required for special education students. After the teachers started
using databases and spreadsheets for such recordkeeping tasks, they began
discovering more and more useful applications.
As the teachers began exploring software more aggressively and sharing ideas
more freely, they came up with improved techniques for developing assignments
and tests, such as placing them directly on the network rather than running
off separate assignment sheets. They discouraged cheating by producing three
or four different forms of a test. They updated tests and materials periodically,
and they individualized assignments. Teachers also began to craft new ways
to optimize the computer's ability to provide immediate feedback. One teacher,
for example, designed an algebra activity that involved students in entering
values for variables and receiving instant feedback messages. Clearly, teachers
were beginning to use the computer to their own advantage.
As they became more familiar with computer applications, teachers developed
strategies for increasing the amount of material they could cover during
the school day. Math teachers reported they could reduce class time spent
on practicing arithmetic skills by relying on computer homework; this freed
class time for developing problem-solving skills. A science teacher, who
formerly spent ten complete class periods on a biology lesson about DNA
modeling, used the computer to design a lesson with graphics that required
only 40 minutes of class time. With less class time spent on standard topics,
they could enrich the curriculum and revise their focus of instruction.
(Note how this correlates to the adaptation phase in the diagram on page
7.)
As teachers became less threatened by some students' exceptional abilities
on the computer, they reframed their views about teacher role and employed
these experts as peer teachers. This made it possible to provide more individual
help to those who were experiencing difficulties. One teacher developed
an assignment that required students to not only solve a problem but also
to design a system for helping other students with the problem. Some teachers
also began to draw upon students' expertise when problems occurred that
the adults could not solve.
When teachers had learned to use the technology to their advantage their
attitudes changed as well. In the beginning, teachers worried about the
classrooms being too technology-centered rather than instruction-centered.
Later, in the impact stage, they described the classrooms as learner-centered.
This difference in focus translated into increased student interest and
attention. Teachers finally were able to use the technology to increase
student motivation and interest while decreasing the number of discipline
problems. Students spent more "time on task" and even asked for
additional work on the computer. Students also exhibited more pride in their
work. They enjoyed producing computer assignments that "look so good,"
and they enthusiastically shared their latest technological discoveries.
When a new software program was introduced in one classroom, the students,
rather than asking questions, started exploring on their own.
During the impact stage teachers' attitudes reflected a significant change
from worrying about their "computerized classrooms," to worrying
about having to teach in classrooms without high-access to technology. Teachers
had reached the point where technology had an important impact on their
teaching. Although some problems could never be eliminated completely, the
benefits significantly outweighed the drawbacks.
Overall Summary
This research study illustrates three significant factors related to
teaching in innovative, high-access-to-technology classrooms: 1) Classroom
management is not a skill that is mastered once and for all. As classroom
contexts change, so do the classroom management issues; 2) Educational change
takes time. Teachers tend to focus on the increased workload and drawbacks
associated with the innovation before the benefits of change emerge and
the innovation takes hold; 3) Teacher change is not unidirectional. Teachers
progress through stages of concern in an idiosyncratic manner.
Data analysis showed that like novice teachers, ACOT teachers entering high-tech
classrooms were initially concerned with issues such as controlling student
behavior, organizing the physical environment, and defining their role in
the classroom. In the beginning, teachers felt unprepared to deal with student
misbehaviors such as stealing work from other students' disks or ignoring
teacher directions when absorbed in certain software programs. With large
numbers of computers, teachers had to cope with lack of space, inadequate
lighting, and weather that disrupted the flow of classroom activities. Delayed
or broken equipment, noisy or bottlenecked printers, and software problems
added to teachers' frustrations. Finally, some teachers had difficulty adjusting
to a situation in which they were no longer the all-knowing experts standing
in front of the classroom dispensing knowledge. Faced with such problems,
it was not surprising that teachers focused their energies on changing their
classroom management strategies rather than on becoming instructionally
innovative. Yet, by the second year, the intensity of teachers' concerns
with survival decreased, and they moved into the mastery stage.
When teachers felt more comfortable with the technology, they became adept
at anticipating and solving many of the problems. To combat student misbehavior,
they restricted computer access and used the technology as a motivational
tool. To save time, they used students as resources, and became more comfortable
relying on the younger experts. They found ways to organize the classroom
and eliminate problems caused by glare, chalk dust, or poor weather. While
problems with the software and hardware never completely disappeared, teachers
began to take pride in their ability to troubleshoot and repair equipment,
and their ability to change plans when problems arose. As teachers became
more confident with the technology, they witnessed positive changes in student
engagement and motivation, further decreasing management problems.
The most significant changes occurred when teachers moved beyond the survival
and mastery stages to the impact stage. At that point, teachers focused
on the effects of their teaching on students and began to utilize the technology
to their advantage in managing the classroom. They developed electronic
recordkeeping systems and strategies for producing more effective curriculum
materials. As their confidence increased, so did their willingness to explore
new areas of technology as well as instruction. Teachers used the technology
to enhance student motivation and decrease discipline problems. In fact,
they incorporated technology into their teaching so completely that they
couldn't imagine teaching without it. Teaching in high-access-to-technology
classrooms had become a natural "way of life."
Implications for the Future
As countless other studies investigating innovation point out, educational
change takes time. Data from this four-year study demonstrate that even
when classrooms are drastically altered and teachers are willingly immersed
in innovation, change is slow, and sometimes includes temporary regression.
Unfortunately, agencies or organizations funding innovative programs often
expect to see measurable "success" within one year of funding.
If ACOT had just been funded for such a short period of time, and if teachers
had not had the time to move into the mastery and impact stages, it would
have been easy to conclude that education is not ready for high-access-to-technology
environments. This study therefore illustrates the importance of investigating
innovation longitudinally. Teachers need time to move through different
stages of development in order to utilize technology, or any innovation
for that matter, to their advantage.
Moreover, those searching for a way to assess the impact of innovation should
not expect to see a clear progression through stages. Problems of implementation
and adoption may arise, disappear, and then reoccur as teachers and students
adjust to the innovation. As schools begin to use more technology in the
classroom, teachers will benefit from the insights of the participants in
these experimental settings, perhaps avoiding the problems these ACOT teachers
have identified. The findings of this study can also inform teacher educators
so that future generations of teachers are more fully prepared to utilize
available technology and other resources.
References
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Fuller, Frances F. (1969). Concerns of teachers: A developmental
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Hall, Gene E., & Loucks, Susan (1979). Teacher concerns as a
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Canada